how old egyptian pyramids

Learn all about the Egyptian pyramids! History of development, symbolism, construction methods, age and recent discoveries. Explore the great pyramids of Giza and others.

The three famous pyramids of Giza and their elaborate funerary complexes were all built during a period of rapid construction, from about 2550 to 2490 B.C. The pyramids were built by the pharaohs Menkaure (front), Khafre (middle), and Khufu (back).

Think of monumental structures that defy time. Imagine stone giants rising above the desert sands. The Egyptian pyramids are not just ancient buildings, they are symbols of the power of the pharaohs and evidence of the incredible skill of ancient builders. In this article we will make a fascinating journey into the world of pyramids, uncover their secrets, learn about their history, symbolism and construction methods. You will learn why the ancient Egyptians built these majestic tombs and how ancient they really are.

What are the Egyptian pyramids?

Egyptian pyramids are ancient stone structures located in Egypt. Sources indicate that at least 118 “Egyptian” pyramids have been identified. Most of them served as tombs for pharaohs and their consorts during the Ancient and Middle Kingdom periods. However, about 80 pyramids were built in the kingdom of Kush, in what is now Sudan. Thus, when we speak about Egyptian pyramids, we first of all mean monumental tombs on the banks of the Nile.

Historical development of the pyramids

The history of the Egyptian pyramids dates back long before the construction of the famous giants of Giza. The first funerary structures for the nobility were mastabas - rectangular tombs in the form of benches. The earliest known Egyptian pyramids are at Saqqara, northwest of Memphis. One of the stepped structures, Mastaba 3808, dates from the First Dynasty period (ca. 3150-2686 BCE) and is associated with the reign of Pharaoh Anejib.

The first historically documented Egyptian pyramid is attributed to the Third Dynasty pharaoh Djoser (ca. 2630-2610 BC). Djoser's pyramid at Saqqara was originally a square mastaba, which was then expanded many times to form a step pyramid. It is believed that this construction symbolized a giant staircase, by which the soul of the deceased pharaoh could ascend to heaven. The architect of Djoser's pyramid is often referred to as his vizier Imhotep, who is believed to have been the first in Egypt to build in stone.

After Djoser, there were attempts to build other pyramids in the 3rd Dynasty. However, the heyday of building “true” pyramids (with smooth sides) was in the 4th Dynasty (about 2613-2494 BC). It was during this period that the great pyramids at Meidum, Dahshur and Giza were erected. The last pharaoh of the 4th Dynasty, Shepseskaf, did not build a pyramid, but erected an unusually large mastaba. Beginning in the V Dynasty, the scale and precision of pyramid construction decreased significantly. By the end of VI dynasty building of pyramids basically has stopped and has renewed only in Middle Kingdom, but the basic building material became not a stone, and raw brick.

It is interesting to note that long after the end of the period of active construction of pyramids in Egypt itself, a new surge of pyramid building took place in Nubia (modern Sudan). It happened after the most part of Egypt has fallen under authority of Kushite kingdom (XXV dynasty, 750-664 BC). During the Meroitic period of Kush's history (ca. 300 BCE-300 CE), about 180 pyramids inspired by Egyptian examples were built.

Symbolism of Egyptian pyramids

The shape of the Egyptian pyramids is believed to have symbolized the primordial hill of Benben, from which, according to Egyptian mythology, the Earth arose. It is also believed that the pyramid symbolized the descending rays of the sun. Most of the pyramids were faced with polished white limestone, which gave them a shining appearance in the sunlight. The names of some pyramids were also associated with sunlight, such as the “Southern Shining Pyramid” (the Broken Pyramid at Dahshur) or “Senusret shines” (the pyramid of Senusret II at El-Lahun).

Although it is generally recognized that the pyramids served as funerary monuments, there is no consensus among scholars as to the specific theological principles underlying them. One hypothesis suggests that they were designed as a kind of “resurrection machines.” The Egyptians believed that the dark region of the night sky around which the stars revolved was the physical gateway to heaven. The narrow shafts running from the main burial chamber of the Great Pyramid point directly to the center of this region of the sky, which may indicate the pharaoh's desire to magically send his soul to the gods.

In addition to religious motifs, the construction of massive stone pyramids undoubtedly served as a demonstration of the power and technological prowess of the ancient pharaohs. It is also suggested that the pyramids may have provided additional protection from tomb robbers compared to earlier mastabas. The use of stone instead of raw brick also increased the security of the tombs.

Number and Location of Pyramids

The first modern list of Egyptian pyramids, compiled by Charles Richard Lepsius in 1842, included 67 structures. Many more have since been discovered, and at least 118 Egyptian pyramids are known today. Many pyramids are in a poor state of preservation or buried beneath the desert sands, often representing only piles of rubble. Nevertheless, archaeologists continue to discover and study previously unknown pyramid structures, most recently the pyramid of Queen Neith, wife of Teti.

Most Egyptian pyramids, with the exception of the small 3rd Dynasty pyramid at Zawiet el-Mayyiten, are located on the west bank of the Nile. The west, as the place of sunset, was associated in Egyptian mythology with the realm of the dead. The pyramids are generally grouped into several pyramid fields, the most important of which are listed below from north to south.

• Abu Rawash: The northernmost pyramid field, where the ruined pyramid of Djedefre, son and successor of Khufu (Cheops), is located.
• Giza: The most famous pyramid field, including the Great Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops), the Pyramid of Khafr (Chephren), and the Pyramid of Menkaure (Mikerin), as well as the smaller pyramids of the queens and the Great Sphinx. The Pyramid of Khufu is the largest Egyptian pyramid and the only surviving wonder of the Ancient World.
• Zawiet el-Aryan: Here are two unfinished pyramids from the Old Kingdom period.
• Abusir: Served as the main royal necropolis during the V Dynasty. It contains 14 pyramids, including the best preserved pyramid of Niuserra, as well as the pyramids of Neferirkar and Sahur.
• Saqqara: One of the most important pyramid fields, it is home to the first Egyptian pyramid, the step pyramid of Djoser. The pyramids of Userkaf, Teti, Merikar and the unfinished pyramid of Sekhemkhet are also located here. To the south of the main field are the later and smaller pyramids of Pepi I, Djedkar Isesi, Merenra, Pepi II and Ibi.
• Dahshur: Arguably the most important pyramid field after Giza and Saqqara. It is home to the Broken Pyramid and the Red Pyramid of Snofru, the first successful “true” pyramids. It is also home to the Black Pyramid of Amenemhet III.
• Mazguna: A small field south of Dahshur with several brick pyramids from the late Middle Kingdom period, possibly for Amenemhet IV and Sobekpeferu.
• Lisht: Two large pyramids are known, those of Amenemhet I and his son Senusret I, surrounded by the ruins of ten smaller pyramids.
• Meidum: The pyramid at Meidum, one of three built under Snophru, was originally stepped and later converted to a smooth-walled pyramid.
• Hawara: Here is the pyramid of Amenemhet III, believed to be his final resting place.
• El-Lahun: The pyramid of Senusret II, the southernmost royal pyramid in Egypt.
• El-Kurru and Nuri: Located in Nubia (modern-day Sudan). The Pyramid of Piye at El-Kurru and the Pyramid of Taharqa at Nuri mark the revival of pyramid-building under the Kushite kings.

Pyramid Building Techniques

The construction of the Egyptian pyramids was a monumental feat of engineering, requiring the movement of vast quantities of stone. Most blocks were quarried in nearby quarries, but special stones such as white limestone from Tura and granite from Aswan were transported by barge from long distances along the Nile and a network of man-made canals.

The quarried blocks were probably then transported to the construction site on wooden sledges. The sand in front of the sled was sprinkled with water to reduce friction. Workers cut the stones not far from the construction site, as evidenced by numerous finds of tools. The finished blocks were placed on pre-prepared leveled foundations. Primitive construction levels, water ditches and experienced surveyors were used for leveling.

In 2013, papyri known as the Merer Diary were discovered, dating back more than 4,500 years. They are the journals of an official who documented the transportation of white limestone from the quarries of Tura to the Great Pyramid of Giza during the reign of Pharaoh Khufu. These findings shed light on the logistics and organization of pyramid construction.

The exact method of lifting the multi-ton stone blocks to great heights is still a matter of debate among scientists and engineers. The most widespread theory assumes use of inclined ramps which could be both external (zigzag or spiral) and, according to some disputable assumptions, internal. The ramps may have been lubricated with water or wet clay, and sledges, ropes, rollers and levers were used to move the blocks.

Archaeological excavations near the pyramids of Giza have uncovered the remains of a temporary city where the builders lived. Finds of bakeries and animal bones indicate that workers were well supplied with food. The organized community of builders, supported by a strong central authority, demonstrates the scope and importance of this national project.

How old are the Egyptian pyramids?

Most of Egypt's major pyramids were built during the Old Kingdom period, after 3000 BC. The pyramids of Giza are thought to have been built over a period of about 85 years, between 2589 and 2504 BC. The first pyramid in Egypt, the Pyramid of Djoser, was built about 4,700 years ago. The last pyramid, built for a pharaoh (Ahmose I), dates from about 3,500 years ago. Thus, the Egyptian pyramids were built sometime between 2700 and 1500 BC.

The radiocarbon dating method (determining the amount of the radioactive carbon isotope C14) is used to determine the age of organic materials associated with the construction of the pyramids. The first experiments with this method were conducted on wood samples from the pyramid of Djoser.

More recent radiocarbon studies conducted in 1984 and 1994-1995 showed some discrepancies with generally accepted historical dates. For example, the 1984 results were on average 374 years older than expected. The 1995 studies also showed that many dates were 100-200 years older than the Cambridge chronology. Thus there was a considerable scatter of dates even for one monument, for example, for pyramid Khufu - about 400 years.

One of the reasons for the divergence of radiocarbon dates may be the “problem of old wood”. With the scarcity of wood, the ancient Egyptians could reuse old wood that may have been lying around for centuries before it was used in construction or burned to make mortar. Thus, charcoal dating may not indicate when the pyramid was built, but when the wood died. In addition, the builders may have used old cultural materials, such as fragments of their predecessors' tombs, in the construction of new pyramids.

Despite some inconsistencies, radiocarbon dating generally confirms that the great pyramids belong to the Old Kingdom historical era. Dating of Middle Kingdom materials showed better agreement with the historical dates.

Ongoing discoveries and mysteries of the pyramids

Egyptian pyramids still hold many mysteries, and modern technology allows scientists to make new discoveries without penetrating inside the structures. The ScanPyramids project has been using cosmic rays to study the internal structures of the Giza pyramids since 2015. Thanks to this, previously unknown voids have been discovered, including one comparable in size to the Great Gallery of Khufu's pyramid and another passage called the Northern Corridor. The purpose of these spaces is still unclear, although most experts believe they may have been used during construction to distribute weight.

Research continues into the construction methods, internal structure and symbolic meaning of the pyramids. The Giza Project is a huge online collection of photographs, plans, drawings, and other materials related to the Pyramids of Giza, making unique resources available to researchers and the general public. GIZA 3D virtual reconstructions allow virtual tours of the Giza Plateau, exploring pyramids, temples and tombs.

Conclusion

The Egyptian pyramids were built to resist eternity, and they succeeded. These monumental tombs of the pharaohs of the Old Kingdom not only demonstrate the incredible skill of the ancient builders and the greatness of their rulers, but also serve as an invaluable source of information about the life, beliefs, and technology of ancient Egypt. The study of the pyramids continues, bringing new discoveries and deepening our understanding of this amazing civilization. The majestic silhouettes of the Pyramids of Giza and other pyramid fields still rise above the sands of time, reminding us of the majesty and mystery of the ancient world.